One of the popular theories of rationality of science is rationality as foundationism according to which rationality of a scientific theory is based on sense data upon which the theory has been constructed. The issue of certain data is, however, followed by many debates. In the present article, appealing to Wittgenstein ideas about "certainty", authors present a new understanding of certainties in a scientific theory. According to this new understanding, each and every scientific theory consists of two kinds of PROPOSITIONS: fixed and fluid. Based on this classification of PROPOSITIONS of a scientific theory, a new idea is presented concerning rationality of scientific theories according to which a theory is rational if, firstly it is consistent and, second, it retains fixed PROPOSITIONS of the scientific society and replaces fluid PROPOSITIONS by other proper ones.Presenting historical evidence, the authors try to show that this idea is efficient and realistic if it is assessed according to standards of rationality which are based on evidency of sense data.

A B S T R A C T Transformations such as globalization, the contiguity of geographical spaces, as well as developments in the field of military technologies have transformed the issue of defense as the main factor for the survival of countries. Because the transformation from hard to soft war and then the smart war in recent decades has changed the approaches to defense. These transformations have led to the development of discussions about defense purposes. Meanwhile, Middle East countries have a prominent position and importance in terms of defense due to their special conditions. This article has tried to investigate the BASIC dimensions affecting the defense of foreign countries with descriptive and analytical methods, using library and field findings and Smart-PLS software. The results of the current research show that the effective components in the current research include 130 items that are placed in the form of 15 dimensions. The importance of these dimensions in defense of the Middle East countries is, respectively, geopolitical dimension with a 0.43 score, military dimension with a 0.41 score, economic dimension with a 0.41 score, political dimension with a 0.39 score, hydrology dimension with a 0.34 score, security dimension with a 0.32 score, social dimension with a 0.29 score, demographic dimension with a 0.28 score, cultural dimension with a 0.26 score, scientific-health dimension with a 0.25 score, geomorphological dimension with a 0.25 score, mathematical dimension with a 0.2 score, climatic dimension with a 0.2 score, biological dimension with a 0.2 score and soil dimension with a 0.18 score. Extended Abstract Introduction Security and defense are among the most vital issues for the preservation and survival of countries. In fact, defense and military affairs are necessary for countries' independence and political, cultural and economic development. Among them, geography and political geography are prominent fields that directly affect defense issues. Actions taken by a country in dimensions (political, military, economic, etc.) in order to maintain security and territorial integrity, guarantee independence and protection of its people against any enemy attack, will organize the geographical (spatial) environment, wise and appropriate distribution of critical places and sensitive centers and infrastructures are identified by taking into account the threats and the correct use of environmental capacities in political, economic, social, cultural, etc. dimensions, and as a result, it can lead to stability and stability in the country's geographical space. The design of defense planning model according to the economic, cultural, political and environmental features in the new era when countries are facing external and internal threats as a sub-branch of territorial planning has received the attention and importance of officials and governance systems in order to be able to reduce these threats with accurate and systematic planning in the geographical space, defense planning is not separate from the flow of national and regional planning. It is important to pay attention to it based on the type and amount of external and internal threats to governance. Due to the expansion of the security circle, the government is not only responsible for creating military security. However, it must also exercise part of its authority in the direction of territorial management. On the other hand, there has been a transformation in the form of threats and wars based on changes and the movement from hard to soft war and finally, smart war is the basis for reviewing and recognizing the components that can be used in defense of countries, including the Middle East countries, have a prominent position and importance. Despite the internal differences between countries, the Middle East has commonalities and connections that can directly affect the overall defense of this geographical space.   Methodology In terms of type and purpose, the current research is fundamentally applied. Also, it is descriptive and analytical in terms of nature. This research, in addition to the correct and realistic depiction of the defense situation of the Middle East countries, it is tried to provide a suitable model for the defense of the countries. The sources used in the current research are library and field sources (questionnaires). According to the subject of the current research, the statistical population of this research is a collection of people, experts and elites who have sufficient knowledge, experience and expertise regarding the research topic, which is the design of the defense model, according to the nature of the Delphi pattern model, at least the statistical population based on the sources should be between twenty and fifty people to reach statistical saturation. The number of selected samples included 51 people who were identified in the form of a non-random sampling pattern and introduced as a statistical sample in the framework of the Delphi model. Due to the qualitative nature of this research, it has been tried to use the Delphi model in the framework of the targeted non-random model. Therefore, based on these cases, the current research has selected the maximum statistical population of 51 elites, experts, and opinionated people in this field. In this research, to evaluate the research hypotheses in the form of the hardness equations model, the partial least squares method and the SMART-PLS software, which is a variance-based path modeling technique and provides the possibility of checking the theory and metrics simultaneously, have been exerted.   Results and discussion In this research, approaches such as political, military, cultural, etc., in the field of land use have been discussed. In the meantime, the defense of countries as an emerging approach is significant. According to the developments in geographical spaces, such as the evolution of military-defense technologies, the connection of geographical spaces to each other and most importantly, the movement from hard and soft war to smart war has witnessed a transformation and wide attention in a way that countries are suited to these developments are trying to prepare the geographical space of their country in terms of defense. Therefore, the defense planning of the Middle East countries as a geographical region has great importance from a geopolitical and strategic point of view, which indicates that the countries of this region face threats and complex defense-security issues in different ways.   Conclusion The results of the present research show that the defense planning in developing countries should be considered according to their characteristics, considering all 15 dimensions, which include 130 components. In the design of the defense planning of these countries, attention should be paid to the weight and importance of the shaping dimensions. In general, it can be said that the defense planning of the Middle East countries is proportional to the geographical features of these countries and on the other hand, considering the developments in the field of threats and moving from hard to smart war, 15 dimensions should be considered for the defense of these countries.   Funding There is no funding support.   Authors’ Contribution Authors contributed equally to the conceptualization and writing of the article. All of the authors approved thecontent of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work declaration of competing interest none.   Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest.   Acknowledgments  We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper.

Postulates and Presumptions are the basis for human sciences. Theorists often assume that these are universal. So they try to extract some theories from these postulates. Conventional economic methodology does not explicitly answer the question about how we choose the PROPOSITIONS. The main question of this paper is what the source of ideas which are the basis for economic theories. In this study we found that there are three point of view in conventional economic theory for this question: pre-empirical, empirical and instrumentalist’s approaches. We also provide some critics for these points of view and offer a new alternative Islamic approach. This approach is based on two fundamental principles: human arbitrary and reality of revelation expressions. Based on these two principles we offer a two-layered methodological approach that extracts the universal law of phenomenon from revelation expressions and partial relationships from Lived experiences of theorist. The revelation expressions are in the first layer as the primary postulates and Presumptions and the lived experiences of theorist are in the layer two as the secondary postulates.

Aristotle is the first logician who has introduced a “quantifier for predicate” and assessed the truth and falsity of PROPOSITIONS with a quantifier in their predicates. Avicenna has referred to these PROPOSITIONS as ‘deviated PROPOSITIONS’, explaining the laws of contradiction among them. He has, however, not mentioned any other rules that govern deviated PROPOSITIONS. Deviated PROPOSITIONS are divided into two groups; those that are parallel to one of the Aristotelian quarter quantifieds and those that are not as such. Combined together, these two groups constitute eight quantifieds. The relation among then can be illustrated through ‘a cube of opposition’. By formulating these eight quantifieds in modern logic, one can easily show that all these quantifieds have even conversions. This article shows that the rules of the Four Figures for these quantifieds are the same as the ‘rules of expansion of syllogism’. There is no need for a particular set of laws for every figure, though it is possible to relate for every figure its related rules.

In this article, we discuss absolutely unprovable PROPOSITIONS from the point of view of Brouwerian intuitionism. According to Brouwer’s definition, a proposition is absolutely unprovable if the creative mind as an ideal mathematician has a proof that both the proposition itself and its negation are unprovable from a constructive point of view. Brouwer has shown that the existence of such PROPOSITIONS is impossible. In his book on Brouwer and Intuitionism, Mark van Atten has described and elaborated Brouwer’s short proof on this matter. The Persian translator of this book has reconstructed and explained this proof in two different ways. In this paper, we present a more appropriate reconstruction of Brouwer’s proof. In the meantime, we will deal with Gödel’s work in generalizing Brouwer’s result from propositional logic to first-order predicate logic. In addition, we will point out that such formalizations of intuitionistic ideas in the formal language of logic cannot do justice to Brouwer’s ideas.

This research tries to present a model so that the reader of Sufi texts can recognize the three types of knowledge in the written heritage of Sufism and find out the relationship between the original and the sub and the text and the margin in the teachings of the Sufis. For this purpose, the mystical experience (discovery and intuition) of the mystic as the original center of knowledge and the source of the perception of the sublime is the criterion of the mysticism of the speech, and the level of mysticism is measured based on the ratio of Sufi PROPOSITIONS to this center of knowledge, and based on this criterion, the collection of words He classifies Sufism into three types: experimental speech, theoretical speech, and organizational speech. The article further explores the roles of language and metaphor in each of these three types of speech and shows that the exploratory, personal and artistic roles of language in experimental speech are more than the other two types of speech and the mysticism of speech in the creative and innovative field of language Appears.

Muslim philosophers have divided conceptual knowledge into two distinct categories: self- evident and non self - evident.The latter is proved by the former. But Muslim thinkers in justifying the self-evident PROPOSITIONS have different logical and analytical approaches. This paper deals with these approaches and attempts to show the place of self-evident PROPOSITIONS in the structure of deductive sciences.

There are two general methods for interpreting and analyzing khārijī and ḥaqīqī PROPOSITIONS: first, by analyzing them within a unified logic; second, by assigning separate logics to khārijī and ḥaqīqī PROPOSITIONS. So far, most interpretations and analyses of khārijī and ḥaqīqī PROPOSITIONS have been carried out using the first method within either traditional logic or a branch of modern logic, while the second method has rarely been used for this purpose. In this article, we aim to use the second method and demonstrate that the appropriate logic for ḥaqīqī PROPOSITIONS is classical predicate logic, while for khārijī PROPOSITIONS, it is predicate-free logic. We show that non-classical predicate-free logic restricts the rules of introduction and elimination of the quantifiers on the existence of khārijī objects, making it the most suitable logic for khārijī PROPOSITIONS. In contrast, classical predicate logic, which does not restrict the quantifiers on the external existence of objects, is more suitable for ḥaqīqī PROPOSITIONS. Additionally, we illustrate that by incorporating modal logic and temporal logic into classical and free predicate logics, the principles and rules of ḥaqīqī and khārijī PROPOSITIONS become more distinguishable, resulting in more distinct logics. In particular, we demonstrate that the Barcan Formula, the Buridan Formula, and the converse Barcan Formula hold true for ḥaqīqī PROPOSITIONS and are proven in classical modal and temporal logics, while they are false for khārijī PROPOSITIONS and remain unprovable in free modal and temporal logic.

The necessities and requirements of the standard logic of phenomenology create some problems in the analysis of fictional PROPOSITIONS which are replete with imaginary identities and lack signifiers. However, the logical conditions of these PROPOSITIONS as the constituent parts of language, is very significant and it cannot be denied or ignored that in the ordinary language, fictional identities are referred to and their relevant PROPOSITIONS are both accepted and rejected. In this paper, the auther has attempted to employ the definite framework of the possible worlds, to find explanations for the manner of referring to these PROPOSITIONS and the value of their truth. A few logic-related issues of fictional texts are also treated in this study; the author, also presents a system for the logic of fictional PROPOSITIONS.